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The Impact of Early Photography

With the advent of the collodion process came mass production and dissemination of photographic prints. The inception of these visual documents of personal and public history engendered vast changes in people's perception of history, of time, and of themselves. The concept of privacy was greatly altered as cameras were used to record most areas of human life. The ubiquitous presence of photographic machinery eventually changed humankind's sense of what was suitable for observation. The photograph was considered incontestable proof of an event, experience, or state of being.

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The Calotype

The calotype's paper negative made possible the reproduction of photographic images. The unavoidably coarse paper base for the negative, however, eliminated the delicate detail that made the daguerreotype so appealing. This lack of precision was understood and used to advantage by the Scottish painter David Octavius Hill and his assistant, Robert Adamson. From 1843 to 1848 they made an extensive series of calotype portraits of Scottish clergymen, intended to serve only as studies for a group portrait in oils, that stands today among the major bodies of work in the medium. Hill and Adamson composed their portraits in broad planes, juxtaposing bold masses of light and dark, creating works that are monumental in feeling despite their small size.

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The principal shortcoming of the daguerreotype and its variants was inherent in its nature as a direct positive. Unique and unreproducible, it could not serve for the production of any image intended for wide distribution. This factor, combined with the lengthy exposure time necessitated by the process, restricted its function to portraiture. The vast majority of surviving daguerreotypes are portraits; images of any other subject are exceedingly rare. Nevertheless, for 20 years the daguerreotype completely overshadowed the greater utility of the calotype. In the United States, where it was equally popular, the daguerreotype was promoted by John W. Draper and Samuel F. B. Morse.

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The Daguerreotype

Daguerreotypy spread rapidly, except in England, where Daguerre had secretly patented his process before selling it to the French government. The legal problems attending the pursuit of photography as a profession account in part for the widespread influence of amateurs (e.g., Nadar, the French pioneer photographer) on the early development of the medium. The popularity of the daguerreotype is attributable to two principal factors. The first of these was the Victorian passion for novelty and for the accumulation of material objects, which found its perfect paradigm in these silvery, exquisitely detailed miniatures. The second was the greatly increasing demand from a rising middle class for qualitatively good but—compared to a painter's fee—inexpensive family portraits. The cheaper tintype eventually made such likenesses available to all.

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All three pioneers, Niepce, Daguerre, and Talbot, along with Sir John Herschel —who in 1819 discovered the suitability of hyposulfite of soda, or “hypo,” as a fixing agent for sensitized paper images and who is generally credited with giving the new medium its name—deserve to share the title Inventor of Photography. Each made a vital and unique contribution to the invention of the photographic process. The process developed by Daguerre and Niepce was, in a grand gesture, purchased from them by the French government and given, free of patent restrictions, to the world. Talbot patented his own process and then published a description of it, entitled The Pencil of Nature (1844–46). This book, containing 24 original prints, was the first ever illustrated with photographs.

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Daguerre's announcement was a source of dismay to the English scientist William Henry Fox Talbot, who had been experimenting independently along related lines for years. Talbot had evolved a method for making a paper negative from which an infinite number of paper positives could be created. He had also worked out an effective although imperfect technique for permanently “fixing” his images. Concerned that he might lose the rights to his own invention, the calotype process, Talbot wrote to the French Academy of Sciences, asserting the priority of his own invention. He then lost no time in presenting his researches to England's Royal Society, of which he was a distinguished member.

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The French physicist, Joseph Nicéphore Niepce, made the first negative (on paper) in 1816 and the first known photograph (on metal; he called it a heliograph) in 1826. By the latter date he had directed his investigations away from paper surfaces and negatives (having invented, in the meantime, what is now called the photogravure process of mechanical reproduction) and toward sensitized metallic surfaces. In 1827 Niepce had also begun his association with Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre, a French painter who had been experimenting along parallel lines. A partnership was formed and they collaborated until Niepce's death in 1833, after which Daguerre continued their work for the next six years. In 1839 he announced the invention of a method for making a direct positive image on a silver plate—the daguerreotype.

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Photography's basic principles, processes, and materials were discovered virtually simultaneously by a diverse group of individuals of different nationalities, working for the most part entirely independently of one another. The results of their experiments coalesced in the first half of the 19th cent., creating a tool for communication that was to become as powerful and significant as the printing press. Four men figure principally in the establishment of the rudiments of photographic science.

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The Invention of Photography

The necessary first breakthrough in photography was in a different, not eye-centered area—that of making permanent photographic images. Employing data from the researches of Johann Heinrich Schulze—who, in 1727, discovered that silver nitrate darkened upon exposure to light—Thomas Wedgwood and Sir Humphry Davy, early in the 19th cent., created what we now call photograms. These were made by placing assorted objects on paper soaked in silver nitrate and exposing them to sunlight. Those areas of the paper covered by the objects remained white; the rest blackened after exposure to the light. Davy and Wedgwood found no way of arresting the chemical action at this stage, however, and their images lasted only a short time before darkening entirely.

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Early Developments

The camera itself is based on optical principles known at least since the age of Aristotle; indeed, a filmless version was in use in the mid-1500s as a sketching device for artists. Called the camera obscura (Lat.,=dark chamber), it consisted of a small, lightproof box with a pinhole or lens on one side and a translucent screen on the opposite side. This screen registered, in a manner suitable for tracing, the inverted image transmitted through the lens. The human eye was the prototype for this device, which functioned as a primitive extension of seeing. Most experiments in photographic technology were directed toward perfecting the medium as a surrogate, more sophisticated eye.

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Like conventional cameras, digital cameras come in compact, single-lens reflex, and large-format varieties. Low-resolution compacts are useful for producing classified advertisements and tend to have relatively simple optics, image-sensing electronics, and controlling software. Digital cameras are often based on existing single-lens reflex camera designs with the addition of CCD backs and storage subsystems. The capture resolution of these cameras is ideal for news photography and other applications with similar quality requirements.

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The aim of the digitization stage is to capture all the information from an original that will be needed in the reproduction and convert it into an array of binary numbers that a computer can process. The human visual system actively seeks cues that will give it information about the objects within the visual field, and a reproduction of an image that contains a large amount of detail is almost always preferred to one in which some of the detail has been lost. The more information that the reproduction contains about the original scene—the objects in it, their colors, textures—the more realistic the reproduction appears.

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Digital photography

The process of electronic acquisition, the equivalent of taking a photograph, is often referred to as image capture.

Light intensity is detected in digital camera by an photosensor. This is normally a charge-coupled device (CCD), although complementary metal oxide silicon (CMOS) devices are beginning to appear in some systems.

When photons strike the sensor, they give up energy. This causes electrons to be emitted, turning the energy of the photons into electrical energy. The number of electrons that are emitted can be measured to determine how many photons struck the capture element, and from this the scanner can generate a value for the intensity of light arriving from the point on the original being analyzed.

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The best conventional between-the-lens shutters rarely yield exposures shorter than 1/500 s. Some focal plane shutters are rated at 1/2000 or 1/4000 s but may take 1/100 s to traverse the film format. Substantially shorter exposures are possible with magnetooptical shutters (using the Faraday effect) with electrooptical shutters (using the Kerr effect), or with pulsed electron image tubes. Alternatively, a capping shutter may be used in combination with various pulsed light sources which provide intense illumination for very short durations, including pulsed xenon arcs (electronic flash), electric arcs, exploding wires, pulsed lasers, and argon flash bombs. Flash durations ranging from 1 millisecond to less than 1 nanosecond are possible. Similarly, high-speed radiographs have been made by discharging a short-duration high-potential electrical pulse through the x-ray tube.

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Photography at exposure durations shorter than those possible with conventional shutters or at frequencies (frame rates) greater than those achievable with motion picture cameras with intermittent film movements is useful in a wide range of technical applications.

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Two distinct classes of photography rely on ultraviolet radiation. In the first, the recording material is exposed directly with ultraviolet radiation emitted, reflected, or transmitted by the subject; in the other, exposure is made solely with visible radiation resulting from the fluorescence of certain materials when irradiated in the ultraviolet. In the direct case, the wavelength region is usually restricted by the camera lens and filtration to 350–400 nm, which is readily detected with conventional black-and-white films. Ultraviolet photography is accomplished at shorter wavelengths in spectrographs and cameras fitted with ultraviolet-transmitting or reflecting optics, usually with specialized films. In ultraviolet-fluorescence photography, ultraviolet radiation is blocked from the film by filtration over the camera lens and the fluorescing subject is recorded readily with conventional color or panchromatic films. Both forms of ultraviolet photography are used in close-up photography and photomicrography by mineralogists, museums, art galleries, and forensic photographers.

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Photographs can thus be made of subjects which radiate in the near-infrared, such as stars, certain lasers and light-emitting diodes, and hot objects with surface temperatures greater than 500°F (260°C). Infrared films are more commonly used to photograph subjects which selectively transmit or reflect near-infrared radiation, especially in a manner different from visible radiation. Infrared photographs taken from long distances or high altitudes usually show improved clarity of detail because atmospheric scatter( haze ) is diminished with increasing wavelength and because the contrast of ground objects may be higher as a result of their different reflectances in the near-infrared. Grass and foliage appear white because chlorophyll is transparent in the near-infrared, while water is rendered black because it is an efficient absorber of infrared radiation.

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Emulsions made with special sensitizing dyes can respond to radiation at wavelengths up to 1200 nanometers, though the most common infrared films exhibit little sensitivity beyond 900 nm. One specialized color film incorporates a layer sensitive in the 700–900-nm region and is developed to false colors to show infrared-reflecting subjects as bright red.

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Emulsions made with special sensitizing dyes can respond to radiation at wavelengths up to 1200 nanometers, though the most common infrared films exhibit little sensitivity beyond 900 nm. One specialized color film incorporates a layer sensitive in the 700–900-nm region and is developed to false colors to show infrared-reflecting subjects as bright red.